Indonesia’s energy transition is positioned as a national strategic goal for cutting carbon emissions, reducing dependency on fossil fuels, and reaching global climate targets. Yet, rather than providing an inclusive solution, these schemes endanger specific communities. A study of the vulnerability of energy transition projects in six regions reveals that the energy shift through power generation from non-coal sources has become a new concern.

The risk of land loss, water and air pollution, ecosystem damage, evictions, and social conflicts are recurring patterns in various locations. The burden of this impact is not uniformly dispersed, but rather concentrated among some groups with little bargaining power, limited decision-making access, and a strong reliance on natural resources and the environment.

This study applies a descriptive qualitative approach through comparative case studies in six regions. Primary data were collected through direct field observation and guided interviews using qualitative form instruments to ensure the depth of information in six regions (Central Java, Central Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and North Kalimantan). Data was collected through the study of government policy documents, reports, academic studies, publications of civil society organizations, and relevant media reports.

The study identifies the effects of energy transition initiatives, who is most affected, and the patterns of distributive injustice that develop. Meanwhile, the power plant has not yet provided immediate benefits to the surrounding population. Rather than receiving advantages, individuals continue to suffer the repercussions of declining livelihoods, environmental degradation, and health issues. This state is inextricably linked to the study’s findings, which reveal that energy transition projects in six locations are typically built on the living space of community groups who rely heavily on local ecosystems.

The study identified several groups as the most vulnerable including indigenous peoples, age groups and genders (women, children, and the elderly), and worker groups (fishermen, farmers, ranchers, scavengers, and power plant workers at the project site).

1. In North Kalimantan, the Kayan hydropower plant (PLTA) and the Mentarang PLTA Induk are in danger of being evicted from their ancestral villages such as Long Pelban and Long Lejuh villages. Formal workers at the Kayan hydropower plant reported unsuitable working conditions, lack of health insurance, and extreme working hours until the early hours of the morning;
2. In Central Sulawesi, the Poso hydroelectric project (PLTA) has caused cultural site damage and the loss of fishing practices such as Waya Masapi and Sogili Market as a result of river dredging. Farmers sustained losses when 94 buffaloes died in Tokilo Village as a result of grazing ground flooding caused by the Poso hydropower plant testing. The compensation for the flood was insufficient, and the community was intimidated for attempting to obtain restitution. Traditional fisherman suffered a significant reduction, particularly in Lake Poso, from tens to hundreds of kilograms to only approximately 5 kg every night due to changes in lake water quality. Indigenous women have a higher domestic workload due to diminishing water from dam projects;
3. In North Sumatra, the Sorik Marapi geothermal power plant (PLTP) caused the loss of lives of adults and children through gas leaks and negligence in securing water reservoirs. Hot mud bursts combined with gas leaks contaminate land and water, making replanting impossible. The company’s waste disposal polluted the water, causing the harvest to fail and changing the productive period of residents’ plants;
4. In South Sumatra, the Rantau Dedap geothermal power plant (PLTP) has caused direct losses to community agriculture. Dust from the project’s heavy vehicles adheres to the coffee blooms, causing them to fall off and reducing yields by up to 40%. The Rantau Dedap PLTP has created drought for the Semendo Indigenous People by reducing river water discharge, which is critical for irrigation and home requirements. People that rely on microhydro from the Endikat River flow are impacted by the river’s erratic flow, which causes electricity to fluctuate;
5. In Central Java, the Dieng geothermal power plant (PLTP) produced an explosion, resulting in worker injuries and economic losses for the community due to land damage. The H2S gas leak at the Dieng PLTP resulted in casualties and contaminated communities’ water and environment. These leaks result in pollutant levels that surpass permissible standards. The government used physical violence against residents who were fighting for their rights and rejecting the PLTP. JETP did not include this condition in its progress report for the Dieng PLTP;
6. In South Sulawesi, Tamalanrea’s waste-to-energy power plant (PLTSa) has the potential to remove thousands of informal scavenging employments. Thousands of residents and pupils are threatened with a healthy living space due to the distance of the PLTSa project, which is only 100 meters from housings and schools.

The study comes to the conclusion that although energy transition projects in Indonesia are supposed to provide clean energy, they still have a number of interconnected vulnerabilities: the loss of natural resources as living spaces causes economic vulnerability; environmental and natural resource crises worsen health; and social marginalization reduces people’s capacity to participate in and defend themselves against various risks and threats in life. The JETP and the JETP Secretariat should incorporate concrete social and environmental protection indicators into the Comprehensive Investment and Policy Plan (CIPP), where project success is determined by the lack of forced evictions and complete respect for the rights of indigenous peoples, in order to address these issues and guaranty a fair energy transition. The creation of an impartial monitoring team is necessary to confirm the actual socioecological conditions on the ground and carry out a comprehensive audit to guaranty that environmental defenders are not subjected to physical assault or intimidation. Accordingly, in order to safeguard people’s living spaces, the Indonesian government and JETP are required to apply the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) concept at every stage of the project. This should be consolidated by establishing an impartial monitoring team to evaluate the true socio-ecological situation on the ground and perform a full audit to ensure that environmental defenders are not physically harmed or intimidated. In accordance with this, the Indonesian government and JETP are required to adopt the Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) concept at all stages of the project in order to preserve people’s living spaces.